Islam's vision of the ideal human being is not the person who performs the most rituals but the person whose character most fully embodies divine values in human life. The Prophet (SAW) said: *'I was only sent to complete the noble character traits.'* (Ahmad) This statement reveals that the entire prophetic mission had a moral-character dimension at its core — not just ritual correction but *akhlaq* (character) transformation. The Quran describes the ideal believer in multiple passages, identifying specific qualities that constitute this character: the believers of Surah al-Mu'minun (23:1-11), the servants of the Most Merciful in Surah al-Furqan (25:63-76), the qualities described in Surah al-Hujurat, and the Prophet's own character described by Aisha (RA) as *'the living Quran.'* This article draws these descriptions together into a comprehensive portrait of the character Islam cultivates — not as an abstract ideal but as a lived practice with specific habits, responses, and orientations.
Barzakh (بَرزَخ — a barrier, an isthmus; the intermediate realm between death and the Day of Resurrection) is the Islamic understanding of what happens between the moment of death and the moment souls are raised on the Day of Judgment. The Quran uses the term in 23:100 — when a dying person begs to be sent back to do righteous deeds, the response comes: *'Behind them is a barzakh until the Day they are resurrected.'* The barzakh is thus a barrier: the dead cannot return to the living world, and the living cannot fully perceive the world of the dead. In Islamic theology, the soul does not cease to exist at death — it continues in a conscious state, experiencing either the beginnings of divine mercy or the beginnings of divine consequences, depending on their earthly deeds. The hadith literature, particularly from Bukhari and Muslim, provides extensive descriptions of what occurs at death: the Angel of Death, the questioning of the grave by angels Munkar and Nakir, the expansion or constriction of the grave, and the nature of the soul's experience in the barzakh. This article examines the Quranic and hadith evidence for the barzakh and the theological understanding of life after death in Islam.
Belief in the angels (ملائكة — *mala'ika*, singular *malak*) is the second pillar of Islamic faith (*'aqida*): the Prophet (SAW) defined faith as belief in Allah, His angels, His books, His messengers, the Last Day, and divine decree. (Muslim) Angels are created beings — they are not divine, they are not to be worshipped, and they do not share in Allah's attributes. The Quran describes them as *'slaves of Allah'* (21:26) who *'do not disobey Allah in what He commands them but do what they are commanded.'* (66:6) They are created from light (*nur*), unlike humans (created from clay) and jinn (created from smokeless fire). They have no gender, require no food or drink or sleep, and exist in perpetual worship. The Quran mentions many angels by name or function; hadith literature provides considerably more detail. This article surveys the Quranic and hadith evidence for angelic nature, the named angels and their specific responsibilities, and the theological significance of angelology in Islamic understanding.
Qiyamah (القِيَامَة — the Rising, the Resurrection; from *qama* — to stand up; the Day when all souls are raised and brought before Allah for final judgment) is a central pillar of Islamic belief — not merely an abstract concept but a near and inevitable reality. The Prophet (SAW) described its proximity: when asked about the Hour, he held up his index and middle fingers together and said: *'The Hour and I have been sent like these two.'* (Bukhari) The Hour will not come suddenly without warning — the Quran and hadith literature describe a sequence of signs, both minor (*ashrat saghira*) and major (*ashrat kubra*), that precede it. The minor signs are many, gradual, and have been occurring throughout Islamic history; the major signs are dramatic, world-altering events concentrated near the end. Understanding these signs is not about predicting exact dates (the Prophet (SAW) himself said only Allah knows when the Hour will come) but about remaining vigilant, purposeful, and oriented toward accountability. This article surveys the Quranic and hadith evidence for both categories of signs.
Tafsir (تَفسِير — interpretation, commentary; from *fassara* — to explain, to make clear; the discipline of explaining and interpreting the Quran's meaning) is among the most important of the Islamic sciences — it is how Muslims have understood, applied, and transmitted the Quran's guidance across 14 centuries. The Quran itself commands understanding: *'Will they not then ponder over the Quran?'* (4:82) The Prophet (SAW) was the first mufassir (interpreter): *'And We have revealed to you the message that you may make clear to the people what was sent down to them.'* (16:44) After his death, the Companions interpreted the Quran from their direct knowledge of the circumstances of revelation (*asbab al-nuzul*), their linguistic mastery, and their personal witness of prophetic guidance. The Successors (*Tabi'un*) learned from the Companions. Over the following centuries, tafsir developed as a formal discipline with distinct methodologies, schools, and major works that remain foundational today. The two primary methodological approaches are *tafsir bil-ma'thur* (interpretation by transmitted narration) and *tafsir bil-ra'y* (interpretation by reason); the Ismaili tradition adds the dimension of *ta'wil* (esoteric interpretation). This article introduces the science of tafsir, its major works, and its methodological approaches.
Silat al-Rahm (صِلَةُ الرَّحِم — maintaining ties of kinship; *silah* — connection, maintenance; *al-rahim* — the womb, used in Arabic to refer to kinship because all relatives share descent from one womb; the practice of maintaining connections with blood relatives) is among the most repeatedly emphasized obligations in the Quran and Sunnah. The Quran connects cutting family ties (*qat' al-rahm*) with corruption in the land: *'Would you then, if you were given authority, make mischief in the land, and sever your ties of kinship? Such are they whom Allah has cursed...'* (47:22-23) The Prophet (SAW) said: *'Allah created creation, and when He finished, the Womb (Rahim) stood up and said: This is the standing of one who seeks refuge with You from severance. Allah said: Are you not content that I maintain ties with those who maintain ties with you, and cut off from those who cut off from you? The Womb said: Yes, O Lord. He said: That is yours.'* (Bukhari, Muslim) — A hadith so extraordinary it personifies kinship itself as pleading before Allah. This article examines what the Quran and Sunnah say about silat al-rahm, who counts as *rahim*, what maintaining ties actually requires, and how to maintain ties with relatives who have wronged you.
The Islamic calendar (*Al-Taqwim al-Hijri* — the calendar of the Hijra, beginning from the Prophet's migration from Mecca to Medina in 622 CE) is a purely lunar calendar of 12 months totaling 354 or 355 days per year — approximately 11 days shorter than the Gregorian solar year. This means Islamic dates cycle through all seasons over approximately 33 years — Ramadan, Hajj, and the major Islamic occasions fall at every point in the solar year across a generation. The Quran established the lunar calendar as the Islamic standard: *'Indeed, the number of months with Allah is twelve [lunar] months in the register of Allah [from] the day He created the heavens and the earth; of these, four are sacred.'* (9:36) The calendar begins not from the Prophet's birth or the first Quranic revelation, but from the Hijra — the migration to Medina — indicating that the community's founding and the establishment of the Islamic social order is the epoch from which Muslims date their history. The Hijri year is abbreviated AH (*Anno Hegirae* — in the year of the Hijra). This article covers the structure of the Islamic calendar, the 12 months, their significance, and the major Islamic occasions in each.
Wasiyyah (وَصِيَّة — a will, a bequest; from *awsa* — to bequeath, to instruct; the Islamic last will and testament in which a Muslim specifies what should happen to their estate, their family, and their obligations after death) is a matter the Quran addresses with urgency: *'It is prescribed for you, when death approaches one of you and he leaves wealth, to make a will in favor of parents and near relatives, according to what is right — an obligation on the righteous.'* (2:180) The Prophet (SAW) intensified this: *'It is not right for a Muslim who has anything to bequeath to sleep for two nights without having his will written.'* (Bukhari, Muslim) The wasiyyah serves multiple purposes: distributing assets to those not reached by mandatory inheritance (*mawarith*) — such as non-Muslim relatives, charities, and friends — recording financial obligations (debts, unpaid zakah, amanah), appointing guardians for minor children, expressing funeral and burial wishes, and ensuring that the deceased's obligations to Allah and to people are fulfilled after death. This article covers the Islamic rules of wasiyyah, its limits, what must be included, and how a Muslim living in a non-Muslim country can ensure their wasiyyah is both Islamically valid and legally recognized.
Al-Dajjal (الدَّجَّال — the Impostor, the Deceiver; from *dajala* — to cover or to smear with tar; the one who covers truth with falsehood; also called *Al-Masih al-Dajjal* — the False Messiah) is described in the hadith literature as the greatest *fitna* (trial and tribulation) that will face humanity before the Day of Judgment. The Prophet (SAW) said: *'From the creation of Adam until the establishment of the Hour, there is no greater matter than the Dajjal.'* (Muslim) He warned his Companions about the Dajjal so insistently that 'A'isha (RA) reported: *'The Prophet (SAW) would seek refuge from the trial of the Dajjal in prayer.'* The Dajjal is a human figure who will emerge in the end times with extraordinary apparent powers — claiming divinity, performing false miracles, and leading a massive portion of humanity astray. His emergence is the seventh of the ten major signs of the Hour (see *[[signs-of-qiyamah]]*). The primary Quranic protection from the Dajjal is the recitation of the first and last ten verses of Surah al-Kahf. This article surveys the hadith evidence for the Dajjal, his characteristics, his appearance, his rise, the trials he causes, his defeat at the hands of 'Isa ibn Maryam (AS), and the spiritual protection Muslims can seek.
Sadaqah Jariyah (صَدَقَةٌ جَارِيَة — ongoing charity; *sadaqah* from *sadaqa* — to give in charity; *jariyah* from *jara* — to flow, to continue running; charity whose reward flows continuously after the giver's death) is established by one of the most powerful hadith in Islam: the Prophet (SAW) said: *'When a person dies, all their deeds stop except three: sadaqah jariyah (ongoing charity), knowledge that benefits others, or a righteous child who prays for them.'* (Muslim) This hadith established the concept of investment for the afterlife — actions whose reward is not finite but continues flowing to the deceased soul as long as the benefit continues in the world. Unlike regular sadaqah (which earns reward for its moment of giving), sadaqah jariyah builds a stream of reward that outlasts the giver's life. The Bohra tradition strongly emphasizes sadaqah jariyah through the *waqf* (Islamic endowment) system, the *Ziyarat* (shrine visit) culture, and the community's religious institutions. This article explores the types of sadaqah jariyah, how to give it effectively, what qualifies, and the Bohra community's approach.
Hifz (حِفظ — memorization; protection; from *hafiza* — to protect, to preserve; one who has memorized the Quran is called a *hafiz*, literally a 'protector' of the Quran) is among the most honored achievements in the Islamic tradition. The Prophet (SAW) said: *'The best of you is the one who learns the Quran and teaches it.'* (Bukhari) The human memory's capacity to hold the entire Quran — all 6,236 verses, 114 surahs, 30 juz — has preserved the text with extraordinary fidelity across 14 centuries and more than 10 million living memorizers today. The Bohra community has historically placed great emphasis on Quranic memorization — the community's ta'lim system includes Quran recitation from an early age, and those who complete the full memorization (huffaz) hold a place of honor. This article provides a practical guide to the hifz journey: the spiritual foundation, the optimal learning method, the daily routine, retention strategies, and specific guidance for both children and adults approaching memorization.
Jannah (جَنَّة — garden, Paradise; from *janna* — to cover, to conceal; referring to the lush, covered garden of divine blessing; also called al-Firdaws, Dar al-Salam, Dar al-Muttaqin, al-Ma'wa) is the ultimate promise of Islam — the eternal abode of divine mercy, beauty, and joy prepared for those who believed and did righteous deeds. The Quran describes it at length: rivers of water, milk, honey, and wine; gardens beneath which rivers flow; companionship of the righteous; and above all, the direct vision of Allah (*al-ru'ya*) — described as greater than all the pleasures of Paradise combined. The Prophet (SAW) said: *'Allah said: I have prepared for My righteous slaves what no eye has seen, no ear has heard, and no human mind has conceived.'* (Bukhari, Muslim — quoting 32:17) The Quran uses more than 100 names and attributes for Paradise, indicating the multi-dimensional nature of what awaits. This article draws together the Quranic and hadith descriptions of Jannah, its levels and gates, its pleasures, who enters it, and how to prepare for it — for the believer who holds Jannah as the goal of their earthly journey.
Birr al-Walidayn (بِرُّ الوَالِدَيْن — goodness toward, dutiful treatment of parents; *birr* from *barra* — to be good and righteous; *al-walidayn* — the two parents) is the second most emphasized obligation in the Quran after the worship of Allah alone. The Quran links it directly to tawhid: *'Your Lord has decreed that you worship none but Him, and that you be excellent to parents.'* (17:23) The Arabic conjunction *wa* (and) here functions not as a simple addition but as an inseparable pairing — as if saying: your worship of Allah is incomplete without your excellence to your parents. The Prophet (SAW) was asked three times which deeds were most beloved to Allah: the first was prayer at its prescribed time, the second was being good to parents, the third was jihad in the way of Allah. (Bukhari, Muslim) The status of the mother is given extraordinary emphasis: *'Paradise is under the feet of mothers.'* (Ahmad, Nasai) This article examines the Quranic commands, the prophetic guidance on honoring parents, specific obligations, special cases (non-Muslim parents, deceased parents, difficult or abusive parents), and the Bohra community's expression of this principle.
The Quran permits the consumption of meat slaughtered in the name of Allah and prohibits that which is slaughtered for other than Allah or dies without proper slaughter. *'Forbidden to you are: dead animals, blood, the flesh of swine, and that on which any name other than Allah's has been invoked, and the strangled [animal] and the one beaten to death and the one that falls from a height and the gored and the one which a wild animal has eaten — except what you [are able to] slaughter [before its death].'* (5:3) The permitted meat is *halal* (lawful) and the manner of slaughter is *zabiha* (from *dhabaha* — to slaughter according to the prescribed method). Across the contemporary Muslim world, questions about halal meat have become increasingly complex: What are the essential conditions for zabiha? Is meat from Ahl al-Kitab (Christians and Jews) permitted? What about machine slaughter? Does stunning invalidate the slaughter? Can Muslims eat meat from non-Muslim countries labeled 'halal'? These are questions every practicing Muslim faces, and the answers require both knowledge of the classical conditions and engagement with contemporary scholarly discussion.
The mosque (*al-masjid* — the place of prostration; from *sajada* — to prostrate; the physical space dedicated to the worship of Allah) is the most sacred type of earthly space in Islam. The Prophet (SAW) said: *'The most beloved of places to Allah are the mosques.'* (Muslim) Every act within the mosque carries elevated reward; every act of disrespect carries elevated consequence. The Prophet (SAW) established specific protocols for the mosque that form the Sunnah (*adab al-masjid*) — from how to enter and what du'a to say, to how to sit and what to avoid within its walls. The first thing the Prophet (SAW) did upon arriving at Medina in the Hijra was to build a masjid — establishing the mosque as the primary institution of the Islamic community. The mosque is not merely a prayer hall; it is the center of Islamic community life — learning, consultation, social support, and spiritual renewal all flow from it. This article covers the complete etiquette of the mosque: the sunnah practices on entry and exit, what is prohibited inside, the Tahiyyat al-Masjid prayer, and the general conduct of the Muslim in the house of Allah.
Usul al-Din (أُصُولُ الدِّين — foundations of the religion; *usul* — roots, foundations; the core beliefs that constitute Islamic faith) are the six pillars of *Iman* (faith) established by the Prophet (SAW) in the famous Hadith of Jibril: when the angel Jibril appeared in human form and asked the Prophet (SAW) to define Islam, then Iman, then Ihsan. The Prophet (SAW) said: *'Iman is that you believe in Allah, His angels, His books, His messengers, the Last Day, and that you believe in divine decree — both its good and its evil.'* (Muslim) These six pillars form the intellectual and spiritual foundation of the Islamic worldview — not merely abstract propositions to affirm but living realities that shape how a Muslim understands existence, history, and their place in the cosmos. The Five Pillars of Islam (the *arkan al-Islam*) are the practical framework of Muslim life; the Six Pillars of Iman are the belief framework that gives those practices their meaning. This article examines each pillar, what it means to believe in it, and how it transforms the believer's outlook.
The concept of spiritual disease (*amrad al-qulub* — diseases of hearts) is central to Islamic ethics and spirituality. The Quran repeatedly uses the heart (*qalb*) as the seat of spiritual health or illness: *'In their hearts is disease, and Allah has increased their disease.'* (2:10) The Prophet (SAW) said: *'Truly, there is in the body a piece of flesh which, if it is sound, the whole body is sound, and if it is corrupt, the whole body is corrupt. Truly, it is the heart.'* (Bukhari, Muslim) Islamic scholars — particularly Imam al-Ghazali in his *Ihya' 'Ulum al-Din* (Revival of the Religious Sciences), one of the greatest works of Islamic spirituality — developed a detailed psychology of spiritual diseases: conditions that corrupt the heart's natural orientation toward Allah, dimming its light and impairing its ability to perceive truth and goodness. The six primary spiritual diseases identified in the Islamic tradition are: *kibr* (pride/arrogance), *hasad* (envy), *riya'* (ostentation/showing off), *hubb al-dunya* (excessive love of worldly life), *ghadab* (uncontrolled anger), and *ghafla* (heedlessness). This article examines each disease, its manifestations, its Quranic and hadith evidence, and its cure.
Shukr (شُكر — gratitude, thankfulness; from *shakara* — to be grateful, to acknowledge a gift; the orientation of the heart that recognizes divine blessing and responds with acknowledgment, use of the blessing in obedience, and praise) is among the most emphasized virtues in the Quran. *'If you are grateful, I will surely increase you [in favor]; but if you deny, indeed My punishment is severe.'* (14:7) This divine promise makes shukr among the most rational orientations a believer can have: acknowledging blessings increases them; denying them (*kufr al-ni'ma* — ingratitude toward blessing) invites their diminishment. The opposite of shukr is not sadness but *kufr* — the same Arabic root (*kafara*) used for both 'disbelief' and 'ingratitude,' revealing that the Quran understands ingratitude toward Allah as a form of the same orientation as disbelief: a covering-over (*kufr* from *kafara* — to cover) of divine reality. Shukr is not merely saying 'Alhamdulillah' after good things happen; it is a comprehensive orientation of heart, tongue, and limbs toward recognition and response to divine blessing. This article examines what shukr means in the Quran and Sunnah, its three dimensions, how to develop it practically, and why it is considered one of the highest stations of the spiritual path.
Al-Sirat (الصِّرَاط — the path, the way; the bridge stretched over Hell through which all of humanity must pass on the Day of Judgment; called *al-Jisr* in some narrations — the bridge) is among the most vivid eschatological elements in the hadith literature. Every human being will be required to cross it: *'There is not one of you but will pass over it; this is upon your Lord a decree which must be accomplished.'* (19:71) The crossing determines the final station: those who cross successfully enter Paradise; those who fall from it enter Hell. The speed and ease of crossing corresponds to the quality of one's faith and deeds in the world: the righteous will cross in the blink of an eye, like lightning; others will cross slowly, crawling; others will be dragged; and some will fall. The concept of the Sirat is deeply connected to the Quran's repeated invocation of *'the straight path'* (*al-sirat al-mustaqim*) — the very phrase Muslims ask for in every rak'a of every prayer in Surah al-Fatiha: *'Guide us to the straight path.'* The daily prayer for guidance on the straight path is thus a preparation for the ultimate crossing on the Sirat. This article surveys the hadith evidence for the Sirat, how the crossing works, the role of good deeds as light, the intercession (*shafa'a*) of the Prophet (SAW), and the spiritual significance of this eschatological doctrine.
Haya' (حَيَاء — modesty, shame, shyness, moral bashfulness; from *hayiya* — to be ashamed, to feel shame before what is dishonorable; distinct from *khajal* which is mere social embarrassment; the Islamic concept encompasses an inner moral sensitivity that causes one to avoid what displeases Allah) is one of the most distinctive concepts in Islamic ethics. The Prophet (SAW) said: *'Iman has seventy-some branches, the highest of which is la ilaha ill-Allah and the lowest of which is removing something harmful from the path. And haya' is one of the branches of iman.'* (Bukhari, Muslim) And in perhaps the most concentrated definition of Islamic character: *'Al-haya' does not bring except good.'* (Bukhari, Muslim) And most striking: *'If you feel no shame, do as you wish.'* (Bukhari, Abu Dawud) — indicating that haya' is the moral brake that prevents wrong action. Haya' operates on three levels: haya' before Allah (the highest), haya' before people (natural social conscience), and haya' before oneself (integrity). This article examines what haya' is, what it protects, what destroys it, and why it is described as the defining feature of Islamic character.
Qiyam al-Layl (قِيَامُ اللَّيل — standing in the night; *qiyam* — standing; the act of spending part of the night in prayer and worship; synonymous with *Tahajjud* — *tahajjada* meaning to forsake sleep for prayer) is the voluntary night prayer that the Quran and Sunnah describe as among the highest acts of worship available to the believer. The Quran commanded the Prophet (SAW): *'And from part of the night, pray with it [the Quran] as additional [worship] for you; it is expected that your Lord will resurrect you to a praised station.'* (17:79) — the very *Maqam al-Mahmud* (praised station of intercession) is linked to qiyam al-layl. For the believers: *'Their sides forsake their beds; they supplicate their Lord in fear and aspiration, and from what We have provided them, they spend.'* (32:16) The Prophet (SAW) called it *'the honor of the believer'* (Hakim) and said: *'The best prayer after the obligatory prayer is the night prayer.'* (Muslim) Qiyam al-layl requires forsaking sleep and comfort — which is precisely why it is so spiritually powerful: it demonstrates that one's desire for Allah's nearness outweighs one's desire for physical ease. This article covers the Quranic and prophetic emphasis on night prayer, the time for it, how many rak'ahs, the witr prayer, how to establish it as a regular practice, and the prophetic description of its spiritual effects.
Waqf (وَقف — endowment, foundation, stopping; from *waqafa* — to stop, to stand, to set aside; legally: to dedicate the income-producing capacity of an asset to a charitable purpose indefinitely, while the asset itself is held inviolate as perpetual foundation capital) is one of the most important institutions in Islamic civilization. The Prophet (SAW) established the first formal waqf when 'Umar ibn al-Khattab (RA) received land at Khaybar after the conquest and asked how to use it: *'Hold the principal and give the fruit as charity'* (Bukhari, Muslim) — this is the core definition of waqf: *al-'asl mahbus, al-thamara musabbala* (the principal is frozen; the output is dedicated to charity). Waqf funded the great civilizational achievements of Islamic history — hospitals (*bimaristans*), universities, libraries, mosques, water systems, roads, bridges, hostels for travelers, and welfare for the poor — for over a millennium. The endowment of Al-Azhar University (972 CE) continues to this day. The Ottoman waqf system at its height in the 18th century funded the majority of public services in Muslim cities. This article examines the foundational hadith, the legal structure of waqf, its civilizational role, and its contemporary relevance.
Adab (أَدَب — propriety, good manners, culture, discipline; from *addaba* — to educate, to discipline, to teach proper conduct; in Islamic usage: the set of refined behaviors, courtesies, and protocols that distinguish a person of moral cultivation and that form the practical expression of Islamic character in daily life) encompasses far more than table manners or social protocol. The Prophet (SAW) said: *'I was only sent to perfect the noble character traits.'* (Ahmad, Hakim) — Adab is the practical application of akhlaq (character) in specific social situations. The Islamic tradition developed extraordinarily detailed protocols for virtually every domain of human life: eating and drinking, greeting and meeting, entering and leaving spaces, interacting with elders and children, visiting the sick, attending funerals, buying and selling, traveling, conversation, seeking permission, the etiquette of gathering. These are not arbitrary cultural conventions but prophetically guided behaviors that embody deeper values: respect for human dignity, awareness of the divine presence, consideration for others, and the cultivation of a refined, thoughtful way of being in the world. This article surveys the major domains of Islamic adab as established in the Sunnah.
Khushu' (خُشُوع — humility, presence, reverence, submission; from *khasha'a* — to humble oneself, to be still in awe; the state in which the heart is fully present before Allah during prayer, conscious of standing before the divine, moved by the words being recited and the postures being performed) is described by the scholars as *ruh al-salah* — the soul of prayer. Without khushu', the body performs the prayer but the heart is absent. The Quran begins its description of the successful believers (*mu'minun*) with: *'Successful indeed are the believers — those who in their prayer are khashi'un.'* (23:1-2) — the first quality of the successful believer is khushu' in prayer, not merely prayer itself. The Prophet (SAW) said: *'Many a person who prays gets nothing from their prayer but fatigue.'* (Nasa'i, Ibn Majah) — indicating that the quantity of prayer does not automatically produce its spiritual effect; only prayer with khushu' does. Imam al-Ghazali wrote that the scholars unanimously agree: prayer without khushu' is like a body without a soul — it has form but no life. This article examines what khushu' is, why it is so difficult to achieve, what destroys it, and what practical steps the Prophet (SAW) recommended to cultivate it.
Salawat (صَلَوَات — plural of salat; in this context: blessings upon the Prophet (SAW); sending salah and salam upon the Prophet) is established by one of the most direct divine commands in the Quran: *'Indeed, Allah and His angels send salah upon the Prophet. O you who have believed, ask [Allah to confer] salah upon him and ask [Allah to grant him] peace.'* (33:56) This is remarkable: Allah Himself — whose salah is mercy and exaltation — and the angels send salah upon the Prophet. The believers are then commanded to join this divine-angelic act of exaltation. The Prophet (SAW) said: *'Whoever sends salah upon me once, Allah sends salah upon him ten times.'* (Muslim) This ten-fold divine blessing makes salawat among the most efficient acts of worship available. The word *'salah'* from Allah means divine mercy and blessings; from the angels it means supplication for the Prophet; from humans it means expressions of praise, love, and blessings directed through du'a. *'Salam'* (peace) adds the greeting of peace. Together, *salah wa salam* is the comprehensive Islamic expression of love, honor, and prayer for the Prophet (SAW). This article surveys the Quranic command, the reward, the formulas (*Salawat Ibrahimiyya* and others), when salawat is obligatory, and how the Dawoodi Bohra community practices it.
Maqasid al-Shariah (مَقَاصِدُ الشَّرِيعَة — objectives, purposes, or intents of Islamic law; *maqasid* — plural of *maqsad* — objective, purpose, goal; *shari'ah* — Islamic law; the teleological framework that asks not 'what does Islamic law require?' but 'WHY does Islamic law require it, and what is it trying to protect?') is one of the most important conceptual frameworks in Islamic jurisprudence. Developed most comprehensively by Imam Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi (d. 790 AH / 1388 CE) in his monumental work *al-Muwafaqat* (The Correspondences), the maqasid framework identifies five *daruriyyat* (necessities) that Islamic law universally and consistently seeks to protect: 1) Religion (*din*), 2) Life (*nafs*), 3) Progeny/Family (*nasl*), 4) Intellect (*'aql*), and 5) Wealth/Property (*mal*). Every ruling of Islamic law, at some level, can be understood as protecting one or more of these five necessities. The framework has become central to contemporary Islamic legal reasoning: how do Islamic principles apply to new situations — bioethics, AI, climate policy, financial instruments — that the classical jurists could not have anticipated? Maqasid al-Shariah provides the conceptual tools to reason from Islamic principles to novel contexts. This article surveys the five necessities, their three levels of priority, and how the framework is applied.
The four Sunni schools of Islamic jurisprudence (*madhabs* — plural of *madhhab*; from *dhahaba* — to go, to follow a way; a school of legal thought with its own distinctive methodology, sources, and derived rulings) developed in the first three centuries of Islam from the scholarly circles of the major early Islamic cities. They are: the **Hanafi** school (founded by Abu Hanifa, d. 150 AH, centered in Iraq — largest school by adherents); the **Maliki** school (founded by Malik ibn Anas, d. 179 AH, centered in Medina — dominant in North and West Africa); the **Shafi'i** school (founded by Muhammad ibn Idris al-Shafi'i, d. 204 AH — dominant in Egypt, East Africa, Southeast Asia); and the **Hanbali** school (founded by Ahmad ibn Hanbal, d. 241 AH — dominant in Saudi Arabia and the Gulf). All four schools derive rulings from the same primary sources — Quran, Sunnah, ijma' (consensus), and qiyas (analogical reasoning) — but differ in their methodological weighting of these sources and in the secondary tools they use. The Dawoodi Bohra community follows the Ismaili Fatimid *madhab* (not one of the four Sunni schools), but understanding the four schools is essential for any Muslim engaging with the broader Islamic scholarly tradition. This article surveys each school's founder, methodology, geographic spread, and key positions.
Mahram (مَحرَم — one with whom marriage is permanently prohibited; *haram* — forbidden; those relatives with whom marriage is never permitted under any circumstances and with whom certain relaxations apply regarding interaction, travel, and dress — because the prohibition of marriage removes the element of sexual tension that necessitates full purdah) is a key concept in Islamic family law and social ethics. The Quran enumerates the mahrams explicitly: *'Prohibited to you are your mothers, daughters, sisters, paternal aunts, maternal aunts, brother's daughters, sister's daughters, foster mothers who have nursed you, foster sisters, mothers of your wives, step-daughters under your guardianship from wives you have consummated marriage with... and the wives of your sons who are from your own loins...'* (4:23) A mahram for a woman is a man she cannot marry permanently; a mahram for a man is a woman he cannot marry permanently. The mahram category exists because Islamic social ethics creates separate protocols for interactions with marriageable versus unmarriageable persons — a married woman may travel with her mahram husband but Islamic law historically discouraged travel without a mahram precisely because the marriageability question matters. This article surveys the categories of mahram, the difference between temporary and permanent prohibition, the practical implications for travel, interaction, and Hajj, and contemporary questions.
Khatm al-Quran (خَتمُ القُرآن — completion of the Quran; *khatama* — to seal, to conclude, to complete; *khatm* or *khatma* — a complete recitation of the entire Quran from the first ayah of Surah al-Fatiha to the last ayah of Surah al-Nas) is the practice of completing the entire 604-page, 6,236-verse Quran in a single continuous cycle of recitation. The Prophet (SAW) encouraged frequent engagement with the Quran: *'Read the Quran for it will intercede for its companions on the Day of Resurrection.'* (Muslim) The scholarly tradition standardized the practice of completing the Quran in regular cycles: the Prophet (SAW) and the Companions would complete it once a month (30 days), and some companions completed it more frequently. During Ramadan, completing the Quran once or more is a widespread Sunnah — the Prophet (SAW) would review the entire Quran with Jibril once each Ramadan, and twice in the year of his death (Bukhari). The completion of the Quran is marked by a special du'a (*du'a al-khatm*) — one of the moments described by the scholars as most likely to have du'a accepted. The Dawoodi Bohra community maintains a rich tradition of communal Quran recitation cycles (*khatma*) — particularly in Ramadan — that brings families and communities together around the Book of Allah. This article covers the proper times to complete the Quran, how to schedule a khatm, the du'a at completion, and the communal khatma tradition.
Nikah (نِكَاح — marriage, the marriage contract; from *nakaha* — to marry; the legally binding contract that makes a man and woman husband and wife, with defined mutual rights and obligations under Islamic law) is described in the Quran as a solemn covenant: *'And how could you take it back after you have gone in unto each other and they have taken from you a solemn covenant?'* (4:21 — the *mithaq ghaliz*, the same term used for Allah's covenants with the prophets) — marriage in Islam is not a social custom or administrative arrangement but a divinely sanctioned covenant. The Prophet (SAW) said: *'Marriage is my Sunnah; whoever turns away from my Sunnah is not of me.'* (Bukhari, Muslim) — establishing marriage not merely as permissible but as the prophetic path. The three pillars of a valid nikah in the majority position are: (1) the *ijab wa qabul* (offer and acceptance — the contract itself), (2) the *wali* (guardian for the bride), and (3) the *mahr* (dower/gift from groom to bride). Witnesses are required in the Shafi'i/Hanbali schools (2 just male witnesses or 1 male + 2 female). This article covers the full structure of Islamic marriage: its purpose, its pillars and conditions, the mahr, the role of the wali, public announcement, and the Islamic wedding ceremony.
Talaq (طَلَاق — divorce, repudiation; from *talaqa* — to release, to set free; the dissolution of the marriage contract) is described by the Prophet (SAW) as *'the most hated of permitted things to Allah'* (Abu Dawud) — not prohibited, but detested. Islam permits divorce as a mercy and a last resort, but frames it within an elaborate system of protections for both parties designed to maximize the chance of reconciliation and to ensure justice if dissolution is inevitable. The Quran devotes more detailed legislation to divorce than to almost any other social institution — two full passages (2:228-242 and 65:1-7) with precise instructions. The three-stage classical talaq process, the 'idda (waiting period), the rights to maintenance during 'idda, the rights of children — all reflect the Quranic and prophetic concern that *'either retain them in honor or release them with good treatment'* (2:229). Islamic law distinguishes multiple types of divorce: talaq raj'i (revocable), talaq ba'in (irrevocable), khul' (wife-initiated divorce), faskh (judicial dissolution), mubara'ah (mutual dissolution). This article surveys the types, conditions, 'idda, maintenance rights, and children's custody as established in Islamic jurisprudence.
Islamic finance (*al-tamwil al-Islami* — Islamic financing; *al-iqtisad al-Islami* — Islamic economics) is the application of Islamic principles to financial transactions, banking, and investment. The defining characteristic is the prohibition of *riba* (interest/usury) — *'Allah has permitted trade and prohibited riba'* (2:275) — which makes conventional interest-bearing debt impermissible. In its place, Islamic finance developed a rich repertoire of Shariah-compliant structures that enable lending, investment, and banking while sharing risk rather than guaranteeing a return regardless of outcome. The modern Islamic finance industry (estimated at over $3 trillion in assets globally as of the mid-2020s) uses products like *murabaha* (cost-plus sale), *musharaka* (partnership), *mudaraba* (profit-sharing), *ijara* (leasing), and *sukuk* (Islamic bonds). Beyond the prohibition of riba, Islamic finance also prohibits investment in haram industries (alcohol, tobacco, weapons, gambling, pork), excessive uncertainty (*gharar*), and gambling (*maysir*). This article surveys the foundational prohibitions, the major permitted structures, and how Islamic finance serves both the individual Muslim and the broader goal of an ethical financial system.
Islamic law classifies all human actions into categories (*ahkam al-shari'iyya* — legal rulings; singular *hukm*) based on what the divine legislation commands, encourages, leaves neutral, discourages, or prohibits regarding them. Understanding these categories is essential for the practicing Muslim: not all 'Islamic obligations' are equally obligatory; not all 'prohibited' acts are equally forbidden; and the vast middle ground of permitted actions (*mubah*) represents the enormous sphere of human freedom within Islamic law. The five classical categories (recognized across all schools) are: 1) *Wajib/Fard* (obligatory) — required; omission is sinful; 2) *Mandub/Mustahabb/Sunnah* (recommended) — rewarded if done, no sin if omitted; 3) *Mubah* (permitted) — neutral; no reward or punishment; 4) *Makruh* (disliked) — discouraged; rewarded if avoided, no sin if done; 5) *Haram* (prohibited) — forbidden; sin if done. The Hanafi school adds a sixth category: *Wajib* (a distinct level below Fard), distinguishing rulings established by definitive evidence (*qat'i*) from those established by probable evidence (*zanni*). This article explains each category with examples from prayer, diet, social life, and commerce.
Talab al-'ilm (طَلَبُ العِلم — seeking knowledge; *talab* — seeking, pursuing; *'ilm* — knowledge, understanding; from the root *'alima* — to know, to understand) is one of the most consistently emphasized duties in Islam. The first word revealed in the Quran was *iqra'* — read, recite, study — connecting the revelation of Islam directly to the act of learning. The Prophet (SAW) said: *'Seeking knowledge is an obligation upon every Muslim.'* (Ibn Majah — hasan) — The word *Muslim* here encompasses male and female, child and adult, which made this hadith a foundation for universal literacy movements in Islamic civilization centuries before similar movements in Europe. The Islamic scholarly tradition built on this foundation to produce one of history's greatest educational systems: al-Azhar (972 CE), the world's oldest continuously-operating university; the House of Wisdom (Bayt al-Hikma) in Baghdad (830 CE); a vast network of madrasas, waqf-funded libraries, and scholarly circles that preserved and expanded human knowledge during what European historians called the Dark Ages. This article covers the Islamic duty of knowledge-seeking, its etiquette (*adab al-talib*), the categories of obligatory vs. recommended knowledge, the Bohra/Ismaili tradition's emphasis on *zahir and batin* (exoteric and esoteric dimensions of knowledge), and practical guidance for the modern Muslim seeking to grow in their understanding of the deen.
Ramadan preparation (الاِستِعدَادُ لِرَمَضَان — the readying of oneself for the sacred month; from *'iddah* — preparation, readiness, provision) is a practice the Prophet (SAW) began in the month of Sha'ban (the month before Ramadan) and the Companions formalized into a recognized tradition. The Prophet (SAW) would fast extensively in Sha'ban — more than any other non-Ramadan month — preparing body and soul. He would say: *'Sha'ban is a month that people neglect between Rajab and Ramadan. It is a month in which deeds are lifted to the Lord of the Worlds, and I like for my deeds to be lifted while I am fasting.'* (Nasa'i) Ramadan is the most spiritually concentrated month of the Islamic year: obligatory fasting (see *[[fasting-rules]]*), intensive Quran recitation (see *[[khatm-al-quran]]*), night prayer (see *[[qiyam-al-layl]]*), and the Night of Power (*Laylat al-Qadr* — worth more than 1,000 months, 97:3). Failing to prepare means wasting the month; preparation means maximizing it. This guide covers spiritual, physical, practical, and community-level preparation, plus specific guidance for the Dawoodi Bohra tradition of communal Ramadan worship.
Muraqaba (مُرَاقَبَة — watchfulness, spiritual vigilance; from *raqaba* — to watch, to guard, to keep under surveillance; from the divine name *al-Raqib* — the Watchful — 4:1, 5:117; the practice of being constantly aware of Allah's observation) is the contemplative practice at the heart of Islamic spiritual development. It emerges from the principle articulated in the Hadith of Jibril: *Ihsan* is *'to worship Allah as if you see Him; if you do not see Him, know that He sees you.'* (Bukhari, Muslim) — Muraqaba is the practical discipline of internalizing this awareness. While the word is most prominent in Sufi literature (particularly the works of al-Ghazali, Ibn 'Ata'illah al-Iskandari, and later Naqshbandi masters), its foundations are thoroughly Quranic and prophetic. The Quran consistently reminds believers that Allah is *shahid* (witness), *raqib* (watchful), *basir* (all-seeing), *khabir* (all-aware) — terms that together describe a God who is not an abstract deity but an intimate, omnipresent Witness to every breath and heartbeat. Muraqaba is the believer's response: learning to live with that awareness not as a burden but as a companionship (*suhba*) with the Divine. This article traces muraqaba from its Quranic sources through its prophetic practice, its classical development in Islamic spirituality, and its practical application in daily life.
Istighfar (اِستِغفَار — seeking forgiveness; from *ghafara* — to forgive, to cover, to protect; *al-Ghafur* and *al-Ghaffar* are two of Allah's most repeated names; *astaghfirullah* — I seek Allah's forgiveness) is one of the most powerful spiritual practices in Islam — and one of the most misunderstood. Many Muslims treat istighfar as merely verbal: repeating *astaghfirullah* without engagement or intention. The Prophet (SAW) described a deeper problem: *'The one who seeks forgiveness with his tongue while persisting in sin is like a man mocking his Lord.'* (Abu Dawud) Yet the Islamic tradition is also unanimous that the door of forgiveness is never closed — that Allah's mercy vastly exceeds human sin — and that *despair of Allah's mercy* is itself a major sin (12:87). Istighfar is therefore the practice of continuous re-orientation: acknowledging the gap between what we are and what we should be, and turning back to Allah — not as a one-time event but as a daily spiritual rhythm. The Prophet (SAW) himself sought forgiveness more than 70 times a day (Bukhari) — despite being sinless. This article explores the theology, practice, physical and psychological benefits, and specific formulas of istighfar.
Zuhd (زُهد — renunciation, abstinence, detachment from worldly things; from *zahida fi al-shay'* — to be indifferent to something, to not desire it; sometimes rendered as asceticism though the Islamic concept differs significantly from Christian monastic asceticism) is one of the fundamental virtues in Islamic spirituality. The Quran describes the world (*al-dunya*) as a brief, deceptive enjoyment compared to the eternal life (*al-akhira*): *'And this worldly life is not but diversion and amusement. And indeed, the home of the Hereafter — that is the [eternal] life, if only they knew.'* (29:64) Yet Islamic zuhd is not world-rejection in the monastic sense: the Prophet (SAW) said, *'There is no monkhood (*rahbaniyya*) in Islam.'* (Ahmad) — The Prophet himself ate, married, traded, governed, and laughed. Abu Darda' (RA) described zuhd not as poverty but as a heart-state: *'The world is in my hand, not in my heart.'* This is the Islamic synthesis: full engagement with the world's responsibilities while maintaining an *inward* detachment from its seductions. Zuhd is the condition of the heart, not necessarily the condition of one's bank account.
Tazkiyah (تَزكِيَة — purification, growth, increase; from *zakka* — to purify, to cause to grow, to commend; the verbal noun is *tazkiyat al-nafs* — purification of the self/soul) is established by the Quran as both a primary mission of the Prophet (SAW) and the criterion for ultimate human success. Allah recounts what He sent prophets to do: *'He it is who has sent among the unlettered people a Messenger from among themselves — reciting to them His verses and purifying them (*yuzakkihim*) and teaching them the Book and Wisdom.'* (62:2) The Prophet (SAW)'s mission itself was tazkiyah. And the criterion of success on the Last Day: *'He has succeeded who purifies it [the soul], and he has failed who instills it [with corruption].'* (91:9-10) — There is no more unambiguous statement in the Quran: human success (*aflaha*) or failure (*khaba*) depends entirely on the state of the nafs at the time of meeting Allah. This article maps the Quranic concept of the nafs (its levels and states), the diseases of the soul that tazkiyah addresses, the methods of purification, and how Islamic practice — prayer, fasting, zakat, dhikr — functions as a systematic tazkiyah program.
Tajwid (تَجوِيد — beautification, improvement, making excellent; from *jawwada* — to do something well, to improve; the science of reciting the Quran according to the rules governing pronunciation of Arabic letters, elongation, pausing, and the qualities of each sound) is a religious obligation when reciting the Quran. The Quran commands: *'And recite the Quran with measured recitation [*tartil*].'* (73:4) The Prophet (SAW) received the Quran from Jibril (AS) in a specific way — with particular sounds, elongations, pauses, and letter qualities — and transmitted it to his Companions in that same way. This chain of oral transmission is unbroken: the Quranic reciters of today trace their recitation through an uninterrupted chain (*sanad*) back to the Prophet (SAW) himself. The rules of tajwid are therefore not aesthetic preferences but an attempt to preserve the exact sounds of divine speech as they were originally delivered. Common errors in recitation — changing the *hamza* to *alif*, not observing *madd* lengths, mispronouncing the *qaf* or *dad* — can alter meaning. This article provides a practical overview of the essential tajwid rules every Muslim should know for correct daily recitation.
Dreams hold a distinctive place in Islamic epistemology and spiritual practice. Unlike most secular frameworks which treat dreams as random neurological events, the Islamic tradition — rooted in Quranic revelation and prophetic teaching — regards a subset of dreams as genuine windows into spiritual realities, divine guidance, or the unseen world. The Prophet Muhammad (SAW) said: *'The true dream [*ru'ya sadiqah*] of the believing person is one forty-sixth part of prophecy.'* (Bukhari, Muslim) — This famous hadith establishes that righteous dreams share something with prophetic experience, differing in degree but not in kind. The same Prophet taught that there are three types of dreams: (1) *Ru'ya min Allah* — a true vision from Allah, good tidings or warnings; (2) *Hadith al-nafs* — the heart talking to itself, processing daily concerns and desires; (3) *Min al-Shaytan* — from the enemy, causing distress and fear. This classification is the foundation of Islamic dream psychology. The article covers: the Quranic dream narratives (Yusuf AS, Ibrahim AS, the Prophet SAW), the three-type classification and how to distinguish them, the etiquette of dreams, the classical science of *ta'bir al-ru'ya* (dream interpretation), and the Ismaili esoteric tradition's approach to prophetic vision.
Taharah (طَهَارَة — ritual purity; from *tahara* — to be clean, pure; the comprehensive Islamic system of ritual purity that is a prerequisite for acts of worship) is described by the Prophet Muhammad (SAW) as *'half of faith'* (*al-Taharah shatar al-iman* — Muslim). The Quran commands it: *'O you who have believed, when you rise to [perform] prayer, wash your faces and your forearms to the elbows and wipe over your heads and wash your feet to the ankles.'* (5:6) The Islamic concept of purity operates on two levels: (1) *Tahara haqiqiyya* — physical cleanliness from actual impurities (*najasah*); and (2) *Tahara hukmiyya* — ritual purity from states of ritual impurity (*hadath*). The three methods of achieving ritual purity for worship are: *wudu'* (ablution with water — for the minor state of impurity *hadath asghar*), *ghusl* (full ritual bath — for the major state of impurity *hadath akbar*), and *tayammum* (ritual purification with clean earth — when water is unavailable or harmful). This article covers each method comprehensively: its Quranic and Sunnah basis, its obligatory elements (*fara'id*), its Sunnah elements (*sunan*), and its common misconceptions.
The Islamic Shari'a recognizes travel (*safar*) as a hardship and explicitly accommodates it through significant legal concessions (*rukhsah* — license, dispensation, relief from the normal obligation). The Quran itself establishes the basis: *'And when you travel throughout the land, there is no blame upon you for shortening the prayer, if you fear that those who disbelieve may disrupt you.'* (4:101) — though the condition of fear was later understood by most scholars to apply specifically to the first revealed context, with the shortening (*qasr*) applicable to travel generally. Three major concessions apply to the traveler: (1) *Qasr al-Salah* — shortening the four-rak'ah prayers to two rak'ah; (2) *Jam' al-Salatayn* — combining two prayers at one time (Dhuhr with 'Asr, Maghrib with 'Isha); (3) *Iftar al-Musafir* — the permission to break the Ramadan fast while traveling and make it up later. This article covers the conditions that define *safar* (traveling distance, intention, type of journey), the specific rulings for each concession, and the scholarly differences between the four Sunni madhabs.
Al-Faraid (الفَرَائِض — the obligations/shares; singular *faridah* from *farada* — to prescribe, to make obligatory; the Islamic law of inheritance) is the Quranic system for distributing a deceased person's estate among legal heirs. It is one of the most specific and detailed areas of Quranic legislation: Allah directly specifies the fractions allocated to various heirs — unlike most areas of Islamic law where the Quran provides principles and the Sunnah fills in details, the inheritance shares are explicitly stated in the Quran itself. The Prophet (SAW) described knowledge of faraid as: *'Learn the faraid and teach it to the people, for it is half of knowledge and the first thing to be forgotten and the first thing that will be taken from my community.'* (Ibn Majah) The three Quranic passages that establish the system are 4:11-12 and 4:176 — collectively called *Ayat al-Mawarith* (verses of inheritance). This article covers: the conditions for inheritance, the categories of heirs, the fixed Quranic shares (*fara'id*), the rules of *ta'sib* (residuary inheritance), and common scenarios.
Amr bil-Ma'ruf wa Nahy 'an al-Munkar (الأَمرُ بِالمَعرُوفِ وَالنَّهيُ عَنِ المُنكَر — commanding what is recognized as good and prohibiting what is rejected as evil; *ma'ruf* from *'arafa* — to know, to recognize — what is commonly recognized as good; *munkar* from *nakara* — to deny, to reject — what is commonly rejected as wrong) is one of the central obligations of Islam and is described in the Quran as the defining characteristic of the Muslim community: *'You are the best nation produced [as an example] for mankind. You enjoin what is right and forbid what is wrong and believe in Allah.'* (3:110) — The obligation appears over a dozen times in the Quran in various forms and is the third element (after belief in Allah and prayer) cited as what distinguishes the believing community. The Prophet (SAW) described it as the immune system of the social body: *'Whoever among you sees an evil, let him change it with his hand; if he cannot, then with his tongue; and if he cannot, then with his heart — and that is the weakest of faith.'* (Muslim) — This article covers: the Quranic basis, the three levels of response, the conditions under which amr/nahy applies, the limits of the obligation, and common misunderstandings.
Islamic marriage (*nikah*) is described in the Quran as a *mithaq ghaliz* — a solemn, heavy covenant (4:21) — using the same term used for the covenant Allah took with the prophets (33:7). It is not merely a civil contract but a divinely-witnessed relationship that creates mutual rights and obligations. The Quran establishes the foundational principle: *'And due to the wives is similar to what is expected of them, according to what is reasonable. But the men have a degree over them [in responsibility].'* (2:228) — This verse establishes both the mutuality (similar rights and obligations) and the differentiation (the husband bears a greater degree of financial and protective responsibility, which comes with corresponding authority). The Islamic model is neither a patriarchal domination framework nor an identical-roles gender-neutral framework — it is a complementary model in which men and women have different but equally dignified responsibilities that together form a complete household. This article covers the rights and duties of both spouses, covering financial obligations (*nafaqa*), emotional and physical rights, limits on authority, and the Islamic understanding of marital justice (*adl*).
Al-Khutbah (الخُطبَة — the sermon, address, speech; from *khataba* — to address an audience, to make a formal speech; plural *khutab*) is the formal address delivered by the imam (*khatib*) before Jumu'ah (Friday prayer) and during the two Eid prayers. In Islamic jurisprudence, the khutbah is not merely a religious talk — for Jumu'ah, it is a condition (*shart*) for the validity of the prayer itself. The Quran commands: *'O you who have believed, when [the adhan] is called for the prayer on the day of Jumu'ah [Friday], then proceed to the remembrance of Allah and leave trade. That is better for you, if you only knew.'* (62:9) — The *dhikr Allah* (remembrance of Allah) referred to in this verse is understood by classical scholarship to include both the khutbah and the prayer. Without the khutbah, the Jumu'ah prayer is not valid. This article covers the pillars (*arkan*), conditions (*shurut*), and sunnahs (*mustahabbat*) of the Jumu'ah khutbah, the distinct character of the Eid khutbah, and the proper etiquette of the congregation during the sermon.
Ghiba (الغِيبَة — backbiting, speaking ill of someone in their absence; from *ghaba* — to be absent; the act of mentioning a person in terms they would dislike, even if what is said is true) is prohibited explicitly in the Quran with one of its most viscerally powerful metaphors: *'And do not backbite one another. Would one of you like to eat the flesh of his dead brother? You would detest it.'* (49:12) — The Prophet (SAW) defined it precisely: *'Do you know what backbiting is?' They said, 'Allah and His Messenger know best.' He said, 'It is when you mention something about your brother that he dislikes.' Someone asked, 'What if what I say is true?' He said, 'If what you say is true, you have backbitten him; if it is false, you have slandered him.'* (Muslim) — This article covers: the precise definition of ghiba and how it differs from *namima* (tale-bearing) and *buhtan* (slander/calumny), the Quranic and prophetic severity of the prohibition, the classical exceptions (when speaking about someone in their absence is permitted), and the method of repentance from ghiba.